Theories of autobiographical memory

Theories of autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory is characterised by individual and gender differences resulting from significant social interchanges and cultural milieus experienced during the early-developmental and mature phases of life. The study is designed to explore the theoretical concepts encompassing the different types, neural basis and several theoretical dimensions pertaining to the autobiographical memory. Keywords: autobiographical memory, cognitive behaviour, cognitive psychology Theories of Autobiographical Memory 3 Autobiographical Memory: A Theoretical Overview Autobiographical memory can be defined as an explicit memory of the past events (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 138) contributed by varying certain nostalgic factors including individuals psychological understanding, complex spoken or sign language, remembrance of interaction with parents and others, specific style of talking, self-representation, personal perspectives and narrative comprehension and production (Williams, Conway Cohen, 2008, p. 371). Numerous episodic memories or recollected events belonging to an individuals past life are referred as autobiographical memories, which have been identified as more complex form of mummeries as compared to the laboratory memories in accordance with several studies conducted by a number of cognitive psychologists. The episodic memory experiment conducted in a laboratory is usually concerned with a brief set of memory comprising of events that are based on certain words that are presented on a computer screen which primarily involve the use of a single sensory modality; exhibiting a diminutive variation in spatial, temporal, emotional, and narrative content or context that is personally irrelevant to the subject (Bauer, Stennes Haight, 2003, p. 29). On the other hand, in autobiographical memories events are recalled by involving multimodal senses as for example, taste, smell, touch, hearing, vision and kinesthesis which are meant to exhibit significant variation in content and context of spatial, temporal, emotional, and narrative reason and also demonstrate personal relevance (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 138). Autobiographical memories involve real-world stimuli and are extremely complex thus, necessitating supplementary theoretical and methodological considerations that are usually not required in a laboratory study involving simplified stimuli (Diamond, Lee Hayden, 2003, p. 831). The main objective of this study is to explore the theoretical underpinnings of cognitive psychology related to the autobiographical mem ory. The initial segment of the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 4 study aims to identify different types of autobiographical memory which extends to the middle segment which is meant to evaluate its neural basis. The later segment of the study explicates the different theories of the subject matter leading to the final conclusion. Types of Autobiographical Memories The systemic requirements pertaining to autobiographical memories involve individual senses as for example visualisation, hearing, and smell; a multimodal spatial system which reminds about the location concerning the objects and people; emotional system; linguistic system; a narrative system concerning casual interactions which does not necessarily involve the use of language (Rubin, Schrauf, Greenberg, 2003, p. 889); and an explicit memory system which facilitates in coordinating information with the rest (Schrauf Rubin, 2000, p. 621). Depending upon an individuals memory, each of these systems tends to process, organise and assign roles that are exhibited by specific cognitive-behaviours. A number of instrumental studies are employed to document the evidences proffered by each system including cognitive-behavioural studies, individual differences research, neuro-anatomy, neuropsychology, and neuro-imaging studies that are all helpful in identifying the traces of events collected within the autobiographical memory of an individual. It has been studied that autobiographical memory itself, does not represents a single entity rather it is complimented by multiple systems; each demonstrating diverse roles, organisation and processing of the relevant data (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 267). The permanence of the autobiographical memory significantly relies on the continuity of these individual systems and their interaction with each other exactly similar to the fact how the recollected memories of an individual is a shared cultural knowledge obtained during the life span which subsequently attributes cultural expectations rather than individuals autobiographical memory (Berntsen Rubin, 2004, p. 430). Long term memory is Theories of Autobiographical Memory 5 principally divided into three major systems including implicit memory characterised by the memories relating to the performance of a task in the absence of conscious recollection; semantic memory characterised by factual reminiscence of events; and episodic memory characterised by the memories of information within specific time and space units (Eysenck Keane, 2005, p. 194). Autobiographical memory is predominantly concerned with both the episodic and semantic memories which are further classified into three sub-types including factual memory, self-schemata, generic memory and specific memories (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 261) that are explicated as follows: Factual Memory The concept of factual memory has not been widely appraised within the theoretical paradigm of autobiographical memory. Factual memory is primarily concerned with the immediate facts and present happenings. Self Schemata Self-schemata as the name indicates, is the central conception within cognitive therapy and is characterised by self-knowledge or information about ones own personality, nature or temperament; which is far more complex and contextualised as compared to the known facts but is much generalised as compared to specific or generic memories (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 264). Self-schemata are not just limited to a specific self-knowledge are the accumulated information connected to specific self-realisation which can be corresponded as facts or statements. The process involves economical organisation of information related to abstracted real-life experiences which greatly differs from the schematic knowledge and this divergence between original experiences and schematic knowledge transpires as the cognitive processes are likely to be influenced by the pre-established schemata similar to the encoding of an experience. It has been studied that the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 6 insistence and distortion of self-schemata may considerably vary depending upon an individuals perceptions (Dalgleish, 2004, p. 233). Generic Memories Generic memories are much specific in comparison with the self-schemata as concerning the memories of repeated and similar experiences however, specific memories are less abstracted as compared to generic memories. The mechanism of generic memories greatly resembles with self-schemata as it involves stacking of analogous experiences. The most critical aspect of the generic memories is the sensory and visual-spatial components which significantly limits the stacking of experiences making it much more specific than self-schemata. A number of disorders especially depression is associated with a greater likelihood of recalling generic memories based slightly vague reminiscence of experiences. Specific Memories Strong sensory and visual-spatial components are the key characteristics of specific memories which facilitate in the recollection episodic events from an individuals past life encompassing certain canonical categories of information such as ongoing activity, location, persons, others affect and own affect (Williams, Conway Cohen, 2008, p. 376). There is a vast difference between specific and long-term specific memories as the most recent happenings can be recollected by most individuals retaining specific memories of the recent past however, the retention of long-term memories of that particular event, by each person is vitally dubious (Conway, 2005) as it has been studied that the specific memories of recent past belong to a different memory system than long term specific memories (Carver Bauer, 2001, p. 728). The process of autobiographical reasoning stressing on the temporal, causal and thematic relationship and cultural interchanges develop narrative-like structures which are meant to form explicit linkage between several specific memories (Bluck Habermas, Theories of Autobiographical Memory 7 2000, p. 140). The theory suggests that the memories of recent past are not subjected to schemata-driven reconstruction processes and therefore, specific memories can be considered as much accurate and less-biased. Neural Basis of Autobiographical Memories The theoretical underpinnings pertaining to the neural origins of autobiographical memory are briefly explicated as follows: Prospection Mental simulation of probable future events can significantly help an individual to strategise and plan for the potential opportunities in pursuit of personal objectives and thereby, chances of failures can be minimised through consistent efforts. It has been studied that prospection is the concept of imagining oneself in future which subsequently allows an individual to engage in organised strategic behaviour to achieve pre-planned personal objectives (Bird Reese 2006, p. 620). Remembering past events and futuristic thinking are both hypothesised to reflect the parallel course of action which has been explicated by the sequential distribution of self-generated probable future events that have been found to replicate the distribution of recollected past events of numerous individuals during their life cycle (Spreng Levine, 2006, p. 1649). There is a possibility that the recollection of past memories and prospection of futuristic events might share neural substrate and similar mecha nism as studies suggest that, a decreasing fashion of phenomenological richness (DArgembeau Van der Linden, 2004, p. 846) and episodic specificity with age (Addis, Wong, Schacter, 2008, p. 1365) has been observed, in the past and future events. Navigation In accordance with the cognitive theory both the ego-centric and allo-centric perspectives facilitate in imagining the current status of an individual and the desired Theories of Autobiographical Memory 8 objectives followed by specific routes to navigate spatial environments through topographical orientation (Bird Reese 2006, p. 615). Lesser emphasis is drawn to an individuals stance as per the allo-centric perspective which is meant to identify the relation between landmarks with the help of engaging ones mind to discover the future prospects that are substantially indifferent to the immediate environment or to visualise or map the environment (Bird Reese 2006, p. 622). Theory of Mind Theory of mind facilitates in comprehending the social navigation process indicating that the communal interchanges between people are based on an individuals perspectives that are greatly influenced by the pre-conceived notions and in order to predict the action and reaction of others, it is imperative to understand their perspective (Garfield, Peterson, Perry, 2001). It has been studied that to understand others perspectives, individuals make efforts to self-project themselves by simulating the mindset of others (Blakemore Decety, 200). Default Mode Functions of brain studied during the resting phase of an individual are usually referred as default mode (Mazoyer et al., 2001) which is characterised by the unprepared thoughts or mind wandering condition in which the brain is becomes stimulus-independent (Raichle et al., 2001) and could be irrational at times (Mason et al., 2007). Both the external or internal environment has no significant influence on the brain functioning of an individual in a resting phase however, an internal mode of cognition may become activated which allows an individual to self-projection or imagine one-self in a desired condition without being influenced by the respective environment (Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, Raichle, 2001; Raichle Gusnard, 2005). Theories of Autobiographical Memory 9 Theories of Autobiographical Memory Development The theoretical underpinnings of the autobiographical memory development have experienced significant progression in context of explaining infantile amnesia which reflects the failure of adults to recall events from their early stages of life. It is quiet a mystery that children seem to remember a lot from their long-term memory bank however, as they grow old and reach the adulthood it becomes exceedingly difficult for them to recall their past memories specially pertaining to their early childhood. Primary Influence Theories During the beginning of pre-school period there is a lack of cognitive and social cognitive framework which is responsible for encoding memories which subsequently result in the failure of retrieving self-relevant memories in later stages of life. Mirror task of self-recognition (MSR) has been identified as the most vital instrument for the encoding and storage of the autobiographical memories (Carver Bauer, 2001, p. 731). On the other hand, it has been hypothesised that self-recognition plays an integral role in retrieving the autobiographical memories however, children in early ages do not poses the ability to understand the fundamentals of nature, personality and character which makes it difficult for them to gain delayed self-recognition. Studies suggest that the memory bank becomes actively responses as soon as a child develops an understanding of one-self and achieves significant representational awareness agreeing to this, the cognitive-motivational theory of adults autobiogr aphical memory presented by (Conway and Pleydell-Pearce 2000) suggest that self grounding is an essential part of retrieving the memories however, they further emphasised on the identification of goals and argued that the inability to reconstruct the memories in later stages of life has a very close link with the incongruity of self-goals with the encoding and retrieving period. Theories of Autobiographical Memory 10 Multiple influence theories A number of studies concur with the former concept of insufficient cognitive or social-cognitive framework during early preschool years, is the vital cause interfering with the encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories however; they further attempted to analyse the critical abilities of an individual to encode and retrieve the memories, in the larger social and linguistic realm for the child (Conway, Pleydell-Pearce Whitecross, 2001, p. 495). Children are unable to comprehend with the causal-temporal sequence of events and cannot establish the order of self-relevant events into a chronological narrative which enables a frequent encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories as the representational system largely depends upon linguistic abilities which subsequently develop after 4-5 years (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 149). A number of theories also suggest that social interaction is another significant element to retrieve autobiographical memories and further argue tha t children develop their critical cognitive capacities through social interactions and reminiscing practices. Furthermore, parental cooperation in discussing, evaluating and elaborating the past events also facilitates in providing rich information which consequently develops in the retrieval of autobiographical memories. It has also been studied, that apart from linguistic aid children also necessitate a reason to learn and recall past events which could be strong social bonds and close relationships which greatly helps them in self-recognition process and the more they recognise oneself in their early childhood, the more it becomes easier to reminisce their autobiographical memories (Conway, Pleydell-Pearce Whitecross, 2001, p. 450). Social Cultural Developmental Theories There are three significant arguments encompassing the social and cultural developmental theories pertaining to autobiographical memories including (i) gradual emergence of autobiographical memory across the preschool years; (ii) autobiographical Theories of Autobiographical Memory 11 memory system is highly reliant upon the language which is the vital tool for social interchanges; and (iii) autobiographical memory is characterised by cultural, gender, and individual differences across life that need significant explanation (Bamberg and Moissinac 2003, p. 398). It has been studied that the remembrance of events from a lifespan of a children and adult may considerably vary and it is quite evident that everybody is not capable of remembering more of events with identical detailing and in similar narrative way as expressed by others. This indicates that differences in both the course and time of emergence of the autobiographical memories and their eventual outcomes significantly vary depending upon age, sex, gender, personal experiences, social interactions and cultural differences (Fivush Nelson, 2004, p. 575). The development system begins with the birth followed by toddler memories that are instituted through social interactions with parents, siblings and relativ es, during which nascent conceptions are built in an individuals mind which might be unconsciously penetrated within the memory bank. Studies also suggest that infants are very much aware of their environment and also have an idea of core self which has been essentially related to intentionality. It has been studied that infants as per their core self have determined goals and actions which is fuelled by the infusion of certain skills, emerging concepts and social experiences (Bamberg and Moissinac 2003, p. 398). The later phase after 4-5 years when the children respond to what they hear and start talking by using linguistic aids results in the preservation of a sound memory bank which can be encoded and retrieved later in life depending upon an individuals capability to reminisce the autobiographical memories. The Core Components of Developmental System The key components of the development system facilitating the early development of memory base are characterised by the initiation of memories being stored within the memory Theories of Autobiographical Memory 12 bank of an unborn child. It has been studied that the unborn child are capable of differentiating and discriminating between the incoming information and are also capable to store the information over time. Children have been studied to have implicit memories that have been collected during the first trimester of pregnancy (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 158) however, the remembrance of such memory can be extremely short. On the other hand, it has been studied that the time duration in which a child emits a previously conditioned response can be extended with the use of reminders thus, strengthening their memory base. The role of language is extremely significant in the retrieval and narration of autobiographical memories. It has been studied that language is significant in the retrieval of autobiographical memory in three particular ways including (i) it is involved in providing the organisational and evaluative attribute of autobiographical memory; (ii) it significantly helps in devel oping and maintain social interactions which subsequently results in the organised representation of past experiences especially for children; and (iii) it facilitates in growing the awareness of young children to preserve memory as a representation of past experience which can be evaluated from multiple subjective perspectives (Fivush, 2001, p. 51). Adult memory talk is the third vital component of developmental system in which mothers play an integral role in developing the memory system of their children as they are the initial point of contact to children, enabling them to understand their external environment and educating them to respond. There is a significant distinction between primary consciousness and symbolic consciousness however, it has been studied that the consciousness of the past is greatly responsible in the developmental system as it helps in defining the concept of present, past and future in the autobiographical memory (Edelman and Tononi 2000, p. 99). Finally, the self-recognition or self-in-time is a closely related concept contributing in the developmental system and it has been studied that to relate oneself in the past or in the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 13 present necessitates the clear-cut mapping of two distinct representations (Perner 2000, p. 212). Conclusive Remarks The memories associated with early stages of life can significantly help in gaining an insight oneself thus, providing the opportunities for emotional growth and development. In addition to this, self-recognition and self-knowledge tremendously help in improving the overall personality and temperament of an individual as the autobiographical memories can facilitate in defining personal lacking hence, enabling the individual to transform into a better human being. The study has successfully established the grounds for understanding different types and neural origins of the autobiographical memory and subsequently unfolded varying aspects of theoretical paradigms associated with the subject area indicating that the memory bank can be developed with growing age. Moreover, the study also reveals that social interchanges and cultural influences in early stages of life have significant impacts on the memory development system. To conclude, it can be instituted that cognitive psychology is a vast subject having wide-range of theories related to autobiographical memory; and this study within its limited scope attempted to address numerous speculative areas of the concerned theme. Theories of Autobiographical Memory 14

Cruesa, his first wife, is lost at Troy Essay

To analyse the character of Aeneas in comparison to the character of Odysseus we must first recognise that they have both been sent away from home, Aeneas by force after the sack of Troy and Odysseus to fight from the Greek side. To analyse them as leaders and â€Å"good men† we must look at their feats and their strengths as well as recognising their flaws as people and warriors. Both characters are extremely respected as heroes. Virgil presents us with the man that founded the greatest empire of all, the Roman Empire. Odysseus had the idea of the Trojan horse, without which the Greeks would not have won the war. Both are primarily good men who serve their countries well. I found though, that they do this in two very different ways. Odysseus’ nostos and Aeneas search for a new home. Scholars continue to disagree on whether or not Aeneas is presented as a good soldier, although the question itself is certainly far from black and white, complicated by the culturally relative nature of terms such as â€Å"conflict†and â€Å"courage†, as well as by the rather oblique definition that â€Å"good† itself holds. Odysseus respectively. I will argue that Aeneas meets the criteria set by neither model and that, ultimately, he is an emotionally unstable, morally dubious and even an incompetent military leader. However, the very fact that he is the protagonist needs to be stressed: his character is necessarily sympathetic, dynamic and intricate. My intention is not to assert that Aeneas is a villain or a coward; he is quite obviously neither of these things and such an interpretation of the Aeneid, a text rich and ambiguous in meaning, would be nothing short of reductive. And in this way he must, and does, have some positive, somewhat redeeming features. Virgil created in Aeneas a new type of Stoic hero, a point that is perhaps most evident in Book Four when Aeneas leaves Carthage. His speech to Dido is indicative of his determination to suffer both silently, Aeneas did not move his eyes and struggled to fight down the anguish in his heart. â€Å", (Book 4) and willing, â€Å"Do not go on causing distress to yourself and to me by these complaints. It is not by my own will that I still search for Italy. † (Book 4) Emotional restraint and acquiescence in regard to one’s own fortunes and torment is intrinsic to a Roman conception of a role model and leader. Equally, the presentation of Aeneas in Book Four can be seen to parallel that of Odysseus in Book Nineteen of the Odyssey, where the reader is told that, in spite of his wife’s tears, the hero’s â€Å"eyes were steady†. Aeneas, then, does conform to both the Roman and Homeric paradigms in his ability to endure the sufferings that Fate has allotted him. And yet his chief characteristic is not his endurance, as is the case with Odysseus, but rather his pietas, a quality essential for a Roman warrior. Time and time again in the Aeneid he is referred to as pious Aeneas, â€Å"famous for his devotion†(Book 6), so the Sibyl states. This devotion is threefold in that it is not only religious and extends to both his family and to his duty as â€Å"Father† of Rome. The latter of these has already been demonstrated by his separation from Dido, in which he subordinates his personal wishes in order to fulfil his destiny, while one can see the first two aspects of this pietas at work quite clearly in Book Five, in which the funeral games, â€Å"held in honour of the divine father of Aeneas†(Book 5), combine a celebration of the familial and of the holy. Like the â€Å"Father† figure that Aeneas, by fate takes on, Odysseus has great affection for his men. When he loses some of his men at Ismarus he tells us how they sailed on â€Å"with heavy hearts, grieving for the loss of our companions†. As well as this, when all the other ships are lost to the Laestragonians, he states, â€Å"We lay on the beach for two days and nights, utterly exhausted and eating our hearts out with grief†. Odysseus risks his life for them. In book 10 when the first half of his men are transformed into pigs by Circe, he goes alone to rescue them. He goes blind into this plan without any forward planning until Hermes helps him. He is so determined to help that he tells an interfering Eurylochus, â€Å"I shall go. I have absolutely no choice. â€Å". He never abandons his men. In Book 9 when his men eat the fruit of the Locus they lose all hope and want for home. Odysseus literally drags them and ties them to benches on the ship so that they cannot escape. In the cave of the Cyclops, after they have blinded the monster, Odysseus ties all of his men to the bellies of rams and they escape leaving him, he is alone and has nobody to tie him on. He does not care because he thinks about his men before he acts as does Aeneas. In this respect they are very similar except Aeneas makes more mistakes than Odysseus does and loses his wife. As a father figure, like Aeneas, Odysseus is very well respected by his men. Near the Cyclops the men divide the goats between the ships. They give nine to all of the ships and ten to Odysseus’ alone as a sign of their respect for him as their leader. Yet this pietas, as much as it appears to pervade Virgil’s characterisation of the leader, might be called into question. Aeneas, on frequent occasions, seems reluctant to implement himself and also uncertain as to the rewards it offers. In Book Five the poet externalises Aeneas’ thoughts as he wonders â€Å"whether he should forget about his destiny and settle in the fields of Sicily† (Book 5), and throughout the first half of the poem he needs to be constantly prompted to continue in his search for his homeland: by his wife’s shade in Book Two, his father’s shade in Book Five, and twice by Mercury in Book Four. Mercury wasted no time, â€Å"So now you are laying foundations for the high towers of Carthage and building a splendid city to please your wife? Have you entirely forgotten your own kingdom and your own destiny? † (Book 4). These temptations are presented to Odysseus throughout â€Å"The Odyssey† but he does not give into temptation whereas Aeneas marries Dido, falls in love with her. Odysseus has a very strict work ethic, which clearly shows his devotion to Ithaca. He is offered immortality by Nymph Calypso if he just stayed with her, but instead the first image that the reader is given of him is knelt on a beach crying for his homeland. He is tempted again by the witch Circe. Odysseus has the weakness of enjoying women. He stayed with Circe for one year before his men reminded him of home. He also stayed with Calypso for seven years. Although we must take into though that there were reasons why he had to stay with her. Even through these periods of extreme temptation and immensely beautiful women, Odysseus wants to return home. He is driven by the goddess Athene but she is not the true reason for his passionate longing for Ithaca. Aeneas is different. He no longing to go home, he has no home. He does long for his promised citadel but is also a cell for the gods to create a new Empire. Venus’ intervention is what points Aeneas towards leaving Dido who he tells, â€Å"I left you against my will† (Book 6). Aeneas seems rather less than devoted to his duty at this moment. He is shown to be quite contented in Carthage and it seems unlikely that he would have left its â€Å"sweet† shores under his own volition. Dido is Aeneas first serious test, and he seems to give way without a struggle (Book 4), and one may see the character here as close to the antithesis of Odysseus who, in his pig-headed determination to return to Ithaca, even rejects Calypso’s offer of immortality. Indeed, Aeneas, â€Å"whose sword was studded with yellow stars of jaspers† (Book 4) is a picture of decadence. Nor is devotion to duty the only aspect of his pietas that can be found wanting, and as much as Aeneas appears to be a truly devoted son it should be noted that he repeatedly fails to protect his family. When one considers those personages in the poem that could be seen as intimate with Aeneas it must be realised that virtually none survive. Cruesa, his first wife, is lost at Troy; Dido, debatably his second, commits suicide and Anchises, his father, dies in the port at Drepanum.

Gospels of Mathew, Mark, Luke and John: The New Testament

1Introduction The four New Testament (NT) gospels of Mathew, Mark, Luke and John present four accounts of the life and ministry of Jesus. Bible scholars and historians assigned the gospel names and their authors as Matthew, Mark, Luke and John respectively. [1] The three gospels, of Matthew, Mark and Luke are known as the Synoptic gospels. [2] The aim of this paper is to discuss the main themes and focuses of each of canonical gospels and show how they relate to reveal a complete picture of Jesus' life and work. 2The Gospels a) Matthew Matthew was one of the first twelve disciples. It would appear that his intended audience were Jews, and he presented Jesus mainly as the King, the Son of David and the promised Messiah-King. He records Jesus’ genealogy showing Jesus is descendant from the royal line of David. In (1:1), he also introduces Jesus as the Son of David. Matthew records more teaching concerning God’s kingdom, for example the entire Sermon on the Mount. The term â€Å"Kingdom of Heaven† appears 33 times and â€Å"Kingdom of God† 4 times. [3] Matthew’s gospel is listed first in the NT because it seems that it is bridging the OT and NT, ushering the Jewish reader from the familiar OT story to Jesus in the NT[4]. Matthew narrates the gospel to convince the Jewish audience of Jesus’ link with the Jewish history and Jesus’ fulfilment of OT prophesies. The gospel is recognised as the â€Å"Teaching Gospel†. [5] When Jesus teaches, he demonstrates His authority as King over physical, psychological, spiritual diseases and even over elements created by God. (5:17, 4:24, 8:1-17, 23-27) Jesus’ authority is recorded, (28:18-20) ‘All authority has been given to Me in heaven and on earth†¦. ‘ b) Mark Mark is the shortest of the gospels, the probable intended audience were gentiles specifically in Rome and he presents Jesus mainly as the Servant. The gospel commences with Jesus as a grown up and does not record the birth and childhood and omits Jesus’ genealogy. He translates the Aramaic phrases for his audience and uses more Latin and less OT quotations suggesting that he wrote for non-Jewish who did not understand the Jewish language. [6] Mark concentrated on Jesus' miraculous works and the gospel is also known as an â€Å"action† gospel because the language he uses is action packed. He uses phrases and words such as â€Å"immediately†, â€Å"at once†, â€Å"as soon as†, â€Å"quickly† stressing his focus on action. 7] He writes with the aim of converting his audience by proving that Jesus is the Son of God, a Jesus of power and action. Marks’ audience faced persecution and martyrdom and so he also writes to strengthen them. He needed to tell them that Jesus had also suffered, and had triumphed over suffering and death. [8] c) Luke Luke was a doctor who got his information fr om many eye-witnesses. The book may have been commissioned by a non-Christian Roman official called Theophilus (1:3,4). Luke’s gospel also is a sequel to the book of Acts. This gospel is the longest of all NT books. It bridges the events between Christ and the establishment of the church. [9] His genealogy traces Jesus' roots back to Adam versus genealogy tracing back to the Jewish Abraham. [10] There appears to be evidence in Colossians 4:10-14 that Luke was a gentile, therefore suggesting his audience may have been gentiles and the only gentile to have his writings canonised. He portrays Jesus as saviour by including more distinct healing miracles and parables than the other gospels. [11] Luke records more narrative of the events, and he alone records John the Baptist’s parentage and records the longest period. Luke emphasises that salvation is for all and more of Jesus at prayer. [12] He may have wanted the gentiles to know that they had the same access to God and presents God’s grace as available to all. e) John Reading the NT gospels shows that the content and style between John and the Synoptic gospels is different. John lived to be older than any of the gospel writers, therefore it is possible he was aware of the Synoptic gospels and thus wanted to compliment rather than produce a similar account. John brings out the spiritual significance more than the other gospels. 13] ‘There are more extended discourses in John and Jesus employs more rabbinical methods. ‘[14] John’s purpose of writing is found in John 20:31, ‘but these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name. ‘ He wrote to show that God was for the whole world, (3:16) and had worked through His chosen people, no w was working by Word become man. The few miracles that he describes can only be attributed to God Himself. He stresses Jesus’ deity, (1:1) Jesus is the Word, that is God who became man. Jesus confirms this verse by many â€Å"I am statements† for example: the bread of life, the light of the world. [15] These â€Å"I am† statements had an important meaning as they were the words God used when He spoke to Moses from the burning bush showing and proving His divinity. (Exodus 3:6). Throughout the gospel, he records the relationship of Father and Son. For example, those who hate the Son hate the Father, making it impossible to accept the Father if one is not a Christian (8:28) and (15:23). Some of these recordings may lead others to believe that the gospel was intended for the Jews. ) Common Ground All four gospels have recorded the witness of John the Baptist, the call and the instruction of the disciples, the feeding of the 5000, Peter’s confession of faith, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, his trial, condemnation and crucifixion, his resurrection from the dead on the third day, his resurrection appearances and his commissioning of his disciples among many others. [16] In addition there are numerous specific sayings which are common or appear in parallel form in all four gospels. There is also material only found in either one or two or three of the Synoptic gospels. There is material that is unique to Matthew, to Mark, to Luke and to John. Most Bible scholars agree that Mark is the earliest gospel and that it was used as a source by Matthew and Luke,[17] Matthew and Luke also used another hypothetical source called â€Å"Q†. [18] This priority of Mark would explain why the Synoptic gospels seem to share mostly the same view of their recorded events. g) Different Ground Some of the major differences in John is that he did not record Jesus' birth, wilderness test, transfiguration, parables as in the Synoptic gospels, the Lord’s supper and the agony in Gethsemane and he has more extended discourses. It could be that John used different sources or his knowledge and facts from his times as Jesus’ disciple. Some of the differences are caused by John concentrating on Jesus’ later ministry around Jerusalem during the temple feasts and the Synoptic gospels concentrate mainly on the earlier ministry in the north and around Galilee. 19] 3. Conclusion All four canonical gospels compliment one another, and present one and the same Person, Jesus the humanity’s redeemer. A Jewish audience in Matthew’s church would need to hear about how Jesus related to Judaism and a gentile in Mark or Luke’s church would want to hear the gospel presented in a way that addressed their lives and situations. When the writers were writing th ey had no idea their material would be used, included or arranged in the Bible as we know it. Therefore we can conclude that the purpose of the gospels, their unique styles and their relationship was to give a complete picture of who Jesus is and to relay the message of redemption. The differences have probably since been instrumental in attracting a diverse group of Christians to the church and in spreading the Good News of Jesus Christ. The Bible in its entirety is God-inspired and God-breathed. The triune God was actively involved in the revelation of His truth to the apostles and prophets who wrote it down. (2Timothy 3:16) Bibliography Bruce, F. F. , The New Testament Documents – Are they reliable? Grand rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 6th. edn. 1981). Drane, John, Inroducing the New Testament (Oxford, UK: Lion,1999). Garrard, David J. , New Testament Survey (Garrard and Mattersey Hall, 2006). House, Wayne H. , Chronological and Background Charts of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan,1981). McClaflin, Mike, Life of Christ (Springfield, Missouri: Global University , 3rd. edn. 2000). Milne, Bruce, The Message of John (London, UK: Inter-Varsity_press, 1993). Radmarcher, Earl D. , Allen, Ronald B. & House, Wayne H. , (eds. ),Nelson's NKJV Study Bible (Nashville, TN: Nelson Bibles, 1997). Youngblood, Ronald F. , Bruce, F. F. & Harrison, R. K. , (eds. ), Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Nelson, 1995). By Sally Masamha 11 December 2009 ———————– [1] John, Drane, Introducing the New Testament (Oxford, UK: Lion,1999), 170 [2] Mike McClaflin, Life of Christ (Springfield, Missouri: Global University, 3rd. edn. 2000), 16 [3] Earl D. Radmarcher, Ronald B. Allen & Wayne H. House (eds. ),Nelson's NKJV Study Bible (Nashville, TN: Nelson Bibles, 1997), 1573 [4] McClaflin, Life of Christ, 18 [5] McClaflin, Life of Christ, 36 [6] Drane, 197 7] David Garrard, New Testament Survey (Garrard and Mattersey Hall: Mattersey, UK, 2006), 28 [8] Radmarcher, Allen & House (Nelson's NKJV Study Bible, 1997), 1637 [9] McClaflin, 41 [10] Wayne H. House, Chronological and Background Charts of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan,1981), 96 [11] House, 92 [12] Radmarcher, Allen & House, 1683 [13] John, Drane, 2 08 [14] Bruce Milne, 21 [15] Radmarcher, Allen & House, 1754-1755 [16] Bruce Milne, 19-20 [17] F F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents – Are they reliable? (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 6th. edn. 1981), 27 [18] Mike McClaflin, 18 [19] Bruce Milne, 21

A Comparison of Strategies in Sports Marketing - 1976 Words

INTODUCTION An organization is established, it has some mission and vision. This mission and vision define its operation and research. To fulfill the organization’s mission they have to develop top level plans and sustain long term competitive advantage that is Strategy. Following this definition, when an organization has mission, develop a plan and understand the â€Å"sustainable† competitive advantage - where competitor cannot easily duplicate the firm’s strategy. The most difficult challenges facing organizations is that strategies are not always efficient as originally planned. So decision taker has to be perfect while strategy formulation which is an interative process (1). For strategy formulation, decision maker should†¦show more content†¦He introduced himself as a representative of the Blue Ribbion Sports and ordered his first pair of shoes. This journey later became successful and developed as Nike (13). The company kept focus best quality sho es for professional athletes as well as on jogging community and daily use sports products. Their successes lead to the loss in the market of the German company, Adidas. Nike’s popularity increases the selling of its product. In 1972 Phillip Knight started promoting Nike as sports brand and he became founder of the Nike with the support of Bill Bowerman (13). Later it started designing, marketing and distribution of athletic footwear, apparel, equipment and accessories for varieties of sports and fitness activities. Today Nike is the world’s leading company in the athletic footwear, apparel and accessories segment in the textile industry (4). Company overview of Adidas group Adidas was established by German Shoemaker Adi Dassler in Herzogenaurach. This brand focus on innovation and quality products that satisfy people’s excitement, and meet the physical challenges (13). 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